Yuan Dynasty

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{{Infobox Former Country|native_name = 大元|conventional_long_name = Great Yuan|common_name = Yuan Dynasty|continent = Asia|region = Asia|country = Mongolia, China|era =|status = Empire|status_text =|empire = Mongol Empire|government_type = Monarchy|year_start = 1271|year_end = 1368|year_exile_start = 1368|year_exile_end = 1387|event_start = establishing the Yuan Dynasty|date_start = 1271|date_end = [September 14, 1368|capital_exile =|latd=39|latm=54|latNS=N|longd=116|longm=23|longEW=E||national_motto =|national_anthem =|common_languages = [Mongolian language
Chinese language|religion =|currency = Paper Currency||leader1 = Kublai Khan|leader2 = Ukhaatu Khan|year_leader1 = 1260-1294-[1370 (Cont.)]|stat_year1 = 1330|stat_area1 =|stat_pop1 = 85000000|footnotes = Yuan Dynasty continued to rule Mongolia after 1368, when it was known as the "Northern Yuan".-->

The Yuan Dynasty (; pinyin: Yuáncháo; Classical Mongolian language: Yuan Guren) was a khanate of the Mongol Empire, one of the four major divisions of the empire, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368, followed the Song Dynasty (960-1279) and preceded the Ming Dynasty in the historiography of China. The dynasty was established by ethnic Mongols under Kublai Khan (the last Great Khan), and he controlled the Mongol Empire (stretching from Eastern Asia to the fertile crescent to Russia and eastern Europe) because of his title of Khagan. Later successors did not even attempt to stake claim over the Khagan title and saw themselves as Emperor of China, as the Yuan Dynasty grew from being an imperial Mongol administration under Kublai Khan to becoming a basically China institution under his successors. At its height, the Yuan Dynasty had a population of 80 million people.

Yuan Dynasty Kublai Khan and Ariq Boke , Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the Yuan DynastyIn 1259 the Great Khan Möngke died while Kublai Khan, his brother, was campaigning against Song Dynasty and Ariq Boke, his other brother commanded the Mongol homelands. After Möngke's demise, Ariq Boke decided to attempt to make himself Khan. Hearing of this, Kublai aborted his Chinese expedition and had himself elected as Khan in April of 1260. Still, Ariq Boke had his supporters and was elected as a rival khan to Kublai at Karakorum. The brothers then engaged in a series of battles, ending with Ariq Boke's capture in 1264. Kublai held him prisoner until he died two years later. The khans of the Golden Horde and of the Chagatai Khanate did not recognize Kublai khan as the great khan. Hulego, another brother of Kublai khan, ruled his il-Khanate and paid homage to the Great khan but actually established a separate khanate. The four major successor khanates never came again under one rule.

Rule of Kublai Khan from the Yuan dynasty.After winning the war against Ariq Boke, Kublai Khan began his reign over his khanate with great aspirations and self-confidence — in 1266 he ordered the construction of a capital near the modern city of Beijing. The city was originally called Zhongdu ("Central Capital") by the Chinese during the Jin Dynasty, and in 1272 it came to be known as Dadu or Tatu ("Great Capital") in Chinese, Daidu to the Mongols, and Khanbalikh ("City of the Khans") to the Turks.Rossabi, M., Khubilai Khan, p131 He began his drive against the Song Dynasty, establishing, in 1271 — eight years prior to Southern conquest — the first non-Han dynasty to rule all of China: the Yuan Dynasty. In 1272, Dadu officially became the capital of the Yuan Dynasty. In 1279, Guangzhou was conquered by the Yuan army, which marks the end of the Southern Song and the onset of China under the Yuan. During Kublai Khan's reign he was put under pressure by many of his advisers to further expand the territory of the Yuan through the traditional Sino-centric tributary system. However, they were rebuffed and expeditions to Japan (twice), Myanmar, Vietnam (thrice), and Java, all would later fail (see Mongol invasions of Japan, Mongol invasions of Vietnam).

Kublai Khan's early rule involved widespread plunder. As if expecting to lose the country, the Mongols attempted to remove as much money and resources as was possible. The Mongol conquest never affected China's trade with other countries. In fact the Yuan Dynasty strongly supported the Silk Road trade network, allowing the transfer of Chinese technologies to the west. Though many reforms were made during Kublai Khan's life, and despite his notable warming to the populace, the Yuan was a relatively short lived dynasty.

belt plaque featuring carved designs of a Chinese dragon.Kublai Khan began to serve as a true emperor, reforming much of China and its institutions, a process that would take decades to complete. He, for example, consolidated Mongol rule by centralizing the government of China — making himself (unlike his predecessors) an absolute monarchy. He reformed many other governmental and economic institutions, especially the tax system. Although the Mongols sought to govern China through traditional institutions, using Han Chinese bureaucrats, they were not up to the task initially. The Hans were discriminated against politically. Almost all important central posts were monopolized by Mongols, who also preferred employing non-Hans from other parts of the Mongol domain in those positions for which no Mongol could be found. Hans were more often employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire. In essence, the society was divided into four classes in order of privilege: Mongols, "Color-eyed" (Central Asians, mostly Uyghurs and Tibetans), Han (Han Chinese in northern China, Manchus, and Jurchens), and Southerners (Han Chinese within Southern Song and other ethnic groups). During his lifetime, Kublai Khan developed the new capital of the Yuan, Khanbaliq, and built a second capital in present-day Beijing. He also improved the agriculture of China, extending the Grand Canal, highways and public granaries. Marco Polo described his rule as benevolent: relieving the populace of taxes in times of hardship; building hospitals and orphanages; distributing food among the abjectly poor. He also promoted science and religion.

Like other emperors of non-Han dynasties, Kublai Khan considered himself a legitimate Chinese emperor. While he had nominal rule over the rest of the Mongol Empire, his interest was clearly in China. By the time of Kublai Khan’s death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had broken up into a number of independent Khanates.

Early rule Succession was a problem for the Yuan Dynasty, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. His original choice was his son, Zhenjin — but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's son ruled as Emperor Chengzong of Yuan China for approximately 10 years following Kublai's death (between 1294 and 1307). Chengzong decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. However, the corruption in the Yuan Dynasty began during the reign of Chengzong.

Emperor Wuzong of Yuan China became Emperor of China after the death of Chengzong. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, but largely rejected it. During his short reign (1307 to 1311), China fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Wuzong. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan Dynasty faced popular discontent.

The fourth Yuan emperor, Emperor Renzong of Yuan China is seen as the last competent emperor. He stood out among the Mongol rulers of China as an adopter of mainstream Culture of China, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng, a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs (resulting in the execution of 5 of the highest ranking officials). Starting in 1313 examinations were introduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law.

Impact dish with fish and flowing water design, mid 14th century, Freer Gallery of Art.A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the Vernacular Chinese. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange.

Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich the Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Tibetan Buddhism flourished, although native Taoism endured Mongol persecutions. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the Chinese classic texts, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Mongols in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography, geography, and scientific education.

Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre, printing techniques, porcelain, playing cards and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China.

The first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the Great Khan's capital, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. The works of John of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck also provided early descriptions of the Mongol people to the West.

The Mongols undertook extensive public works. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granary were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, sorghum, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.

Downfall Civil unrest Province, built in 1330 during the Yuan Dynasty.The last years of the Yuan Dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. The dynasty was, significantly, one of the shortest-lived dynasties in the history of China, covering just a century, 1271 to 1368. In time, Kublai Khan's successors became sinicized, then lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and were marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace. China was torn by dissension and unrest; bandits ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.

Emperor Yingzong of Yuan China ruled for just two years (1321 to 1323); his rule ended in a coup at the hands of five princes. They placed Emperor Taidingdi of Yuan China on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide. The last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan was expelled from Dadu (present-day Beijing) in 1368 by Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Míng Dynasty (1368–1644).

Basalawarmi established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381.

Northern Yuan The Mongols retreated to Mongolia, where the Yuan Dynasty was formally carried on. It is now called the Northern Yuan by modern historians. According to Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate empire, and so the Ming and the Yuan denied each other's legitimacy. (The Ming did consider the previous Yuan which it had succeeded a legitimate dynasty, however). Historians generally regard the Míng Dynasty as the legitimate dynasty.

The Ming army invaded Mongolia in 1380 and won a decisive victory in 1388. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoners, and Karakorum (palace) (the Northern Yuan capital) was destroyed. Eight years later, the Northern Yuan throne was taken over by Yesüder, a descendant of Ariq Boke. He restored the throne to descendants of Kublai Khan. The following centuries saw a succession of Chinggisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. Periods of conflict with the Ming empire intermingled with periods of peaceful relations with border trade.

In the 17th century, the Mongols came under the influence of the Manchu. In 1634, Ligdan Khan, the last Great Khan of the Mongols, died on his way to Tibet. His son, Ejei Khan, surrendered to the Manchu and gave the great seal of the Yuan Emperor to its ruler, Hong Taiji. As a result, Hong Taiji established the Qing Dynasty as the successor of the Yuan Dynasty in 1636. (Some sources such as Encyclopædia Britannica give the year as 1637).

Other notes

During the reign of the Yuan the world population grew from about 330 million to approximately 360 million, a difference of 30 million.

References

J. J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (1971)
Ahmad Y. al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, Islamic Technology (1988)